Engine Lathe Turning

The purpose of a lathe is to rotate a part against a tool whose position it controls. It is useful for fabricating parts and/or features that have a circular cross section. The spindle is the part of the lathe that rotates. Various workholding attachments such as three jaw chucks, collets, and centers can be held in the spindle. The spindle is driven by an electric motor through a system of belt drives and/or gear trains. Spindle speed is contolled by varying the geometry of the drive train.
The tailstock can be used to support the end of the workpiece with a center, or to hold tools for drilling, reaming, threading, or cutting tapers. It can be adjusted in position along the ways to accomodate different length workpices. The ram can be fed along the axis of rotation with the tailstock handwheel.

The carriage controls and supports the cutting tool. It consists of:

A saddle that mates with and slides along the ways.
An apron that controls the feed mechanisms.
A cross slide that controls transverse motion of the tool (toward or away from the operator).
A tool compound that adjusts to permit angular tool movement.
A toolpost T-slot that holds the toolpost.


Choosing a Cutting Tool


This picture shows a typical cutting tool and the terminology used to describe it. The actual geometry varies with the type of work to be done. The standard cutting tool shapes are shown below.











Facing tools are ground to provide clearance with a center.
Roughing tools have a small side relief angle to leave more material to support the cutting edge during deep cuts.
Finishing tools have a more rounded nose to provide a finer finish. Round nose tools are for lighter turning. They have no back or side rake to permit cutting in either direction.
Left hand cutting tools are designed to cut best when traveling from left to right.
Aluminum is cut best by specially shaped cutting tools (not shown) that are used with the cutting edge slightly above center to reduce chatter.
Installing a Cutting Tool
Lathe cutting tools are held by tool holders. To install a tool, first clean the holder, then tighten the bolts.
The tool post is secured to the compound with a T-bolt. The tool holder is secured to the tool post using a quick release lever.


Positioning the Tool
In order to move the cutting tool, the lathe saddle and cross slide can be moved by hand.

There are also power feeds for these axes. Procedures vary from machine to machine.

A third axis of motion is provided by the compound. The angle of the compound can be adjusted to allow tapers to be cut at any desired angle. First, loosen the bolts securing the compound to the saddle. Then rotate the compound to the desired angle referencing the dial indicator at the base of the compound. Retighten the bolts. Now the tool can be hand fed along the desired angle. No power feed is available for the compound. If a fine finish is required, use both hands to achieve a smoother feed rate.

The cross slide and compound have a micrometer dial to allow accurate positioning, but the saddle doesn't. To position the saddle accurately, you may use a dial indicator mounted to the saddle. The dial indicator presses against a stop.

Feed, Speed, and Depth of Cut
Cutting speed is defined as the speed at which the work moves with respect to the tool (usually measured in feet per minute). Feed rate is defined as the distance the tool travels during one revolution of the part. Cutting speed and feed determines the surface finish, power requirements, and material removal rate. The primary factor in choosing feed and speed is the material to be cut. However, one should also consider material of the tool, rigidity of the workpiece, size and condition of the lathe, and depth of cut. For most Aluminum alloys, on a roughing cut (.010 to .020 inches depth of cut) run at 600 fpm. On a finishing cut (.002 to .010 depth of cut) run at 1000 fpm. To calculate the proper spindle speed, divide the desired cutting speed by the circumference of the work. Experiment with feed rates to achieve the desired finish. In considering depth of cut, it's important to remember that for each thousandth depth of cut, the work diameter is reduced by two thousandths.

Turning
The lathe can be used to reduce the diameter of a part to a desired dimension. First, clamp the part securely in a lathe chuck. The part should not extend more that three times its diameter. Then install a roughing or finishing tool (whichever is appropriate). If you're feeding the saddle toward the headstock, use a right-hand turning tool. Move the tool off the part by backing the carriage up with the carriage handwheel, then use the cross feed to set the desired depth of cut. In the clip below, a finish cut is made using the power feed for a smoother finish. Remember that for each thousandth depth of cut, the work diameter is reduced by two thousandths.
Facing
A lathe can be used to create a smooth, flat, face very accurately perpendicular to the axis of a cylindrical part. First, clamp the part securely in a lathe chuck. Then, install a facing tool. Bring the tool approximately into position, but slightly off of the part. Always turn the spindle by hand before turning it on. This ensures that no parts interfere with the rotation of the spindle. Move the tool outside the part and adjust the saddle to take the desired depth of cut. Then, feed the tool across the face with the cross slide. The following clip shows a roughing cut being made; about 50 thousandths are being removed in one pass. If a finer finish is required, take just a few thousandths on the final cut and use the power feed. Be careful clearing the ribbon-like chips; They are very sharp. Do not clear the chips while the spindle is turning. After facing, there is a very sharp edge on the part. Break the edge with a file.
Parting
A parting tool is deeper and narrower than a turning tool. It is designed for making narrow grooves and for cutting off parts. When a parting tool is installed, ensure that it hangs over the tool holder enough that the the holder will clear the workpiece (but no more than that). Ensure that the parting tool is perpendicular to the axis of rotation and that the tip is the same height as the center of the part. A good way to do this is to hold the tool against the face of the part. Set the height of the tool, lay it flat against the face of the part, then lock the tool in place. When the cut is deep, the side of the part can rub against sides of the groove, so it's especially important to apply cutting fluid. In this clip, a part is cut off from a piece of stock.

Drilling
A lathe can also be used to drill holes accurately concentric with the centerline of a cylindrical part. First, install a drill chuck into the tail stock. Make certain that the tang on the back of the drill chuck seats properly in the tail stock. Withdraw the jaws of the chuck and tap the chuck in place with a soft hammer.

Move the saddle forward to make room for the tailstock. Move the tailstock into position, and lock the it in place (otherwise it will slide backward as you try to drill). Before starting the machine, turn the spindle by hand. You've just moved the saddle forward, so it could interfere with the rotation of the lathe chuck. Always use a centerdrill to start the hole. You should use cutting fluid with the centerdrill. It has shallow flutes (for added stiffness) and doesn't cut as easily as a drill bit. Always drill past the beginning of the taper to create a funnel to guide the bit in. Take at most one or two drill diameters of material before backing off, clearing the chips, and applying cutting fluid. If the drill bit squeeks, aplly solvent more often. The drill chuck can be removed from the tail stock by drawing back the drill chuck as far as it will easily go, then about a quarter turn more. A pin will press the chuck out of the collet.

Boring
Boring is an operation in which a hole is enlarged with a single point cutting tool. A boring bar is used to support the cutting tool as it extends into the hole. Because of the extension of the boring bar, the tool is supported less rigidly and is more likely to chatter. This can be corrected by using slower spindle speeds or by grinding a smaller radius on the nose of the tool.



Single Point Thread Turning
External threads can be cut with a die and internal threads can be cut with a tap. But for some diameters, no die or tap is available. In these cases, threads can be cut on a lathe. A special cutting tool should be used, typically witha 60 degree nose angle. To form threads with a specified number of threads per inch, the spindle is mechanically coupled to the carriage lead screw. Procedures vary for different machines.

Thread Measuring Wires

For Pitch Diameters values, reference the Machinery Handbook.

Sharpening Drills

Improperly Sharpened Drills (unequal edge length, unequal point angles, inadequate relief angles) will either rub, drift and/or drill oversize.

The picture above is an illustration of a standard Twist Drill.

Regardless if you sharpen it holding it by hand or with a drill grinding machine, the results should be the same.

Grinding the relief behind the cutting edge:

Referring to the above picture, the drill is swung around the A-axis of an imaginary cone while resting in a support which hold the drill at one-half the point of angle B with respect to the face of the grinding wheel.

Recommended angles for Twist Drill sharpening:

Point Angle:

118 degrees for low and medium carbon steels.

118 degrees to 135 degrees for high carbon steels.

90 degrees to 140 degrees for Aluminum.

Helix Angle:

24 degrees to 32 degrees

Lip Relief Angle:

10 degrees to 15 degrees for low and medium carbon steels.
7 degrees to 12 degrees for high carbon steels.

Note: the lower values of these angle ranges are for large diameter drills and the higher values are for smaller diameter drills. For drills less than .250" diameter the lip relief angles are increased beyond the listed max....up to 24 degrees.

Drill Point Thinning or "Splitting the Drill Point"

The Chisel edge is the least efficient Operating surface on a trist drill point because it does not cut. The chisel edge squeezes or extrudes the work piece material.

Point thinning is desireable on large diameter drills and also on drills that have become shorter because of grinding due to usage. The thickness of the web increases toward the shaft of the twist drill, which increases the chisel edge. The above picture illustrates what a thinned drill point looks like.

Twist drill grinding by hand takes patience and practice. There are other types of drills such as Spade Drills that have different geometry. This post focuses on Twist Drills.

Speeds and Feeds

Tool life is influenced most by Cutting Speed, then by the Feed Rate and least by the Depth of Cut. The proper selection these are Important for time and cost.

(The proper coolant is also a factor. Some materials will work harden with the wrong coolant. This post does not cover this....you'll need to further research how to select the best lubricant/coolant.)

The phrase speeds and feeds refers to two separate velocities in machine tool practice, cutting speed and feed rate. They are often considered as a pair because of their combined effect on the cutting process. Cutting speed may be defined as the rate (or speed) that the material moves past the cutting edge of the tool. It is expressed in units of distance along the workpiece surface per time (typically surface feet per minute [sfm]).
SFM varies depending on the material grade of the cutting tool, the type of cutting tool, the type of material being removed and hardness of material being removed. The Machinery Handbook has time proven charts of recommended Cutting speeds (SFM) to use. Also, manufacturers of cutting tools and steel manufacturers have charts as well.

To determine the Spindle Speed in Revolutions per Minute (RPM): use the following formula:
(12 multiplied to the SFM) divided by (3.1414 multiplied to the Diameter)
note: in the above formula, Diameter refers to the Diameter of the mill cutter/drill or the Diameter of the work piece being turned in the Lathe.


Feed rate is the velocity at which the cutter is fed, that is, advanced against the workpiece. It is expressed in units of distance per revolution for turning and boring (typically inches per revolution [ipr] or millimeters per revolution). It can be expressed thus for milling also, but it is often expressed in units of distance per time for milling (typically inches per minute [ipm] or millimeters per minute). Cutting speed and feed rate together determine the material removal rate, which is the volume of workpiece material (metal, wood, plastic, etc.) that can be removed per time unit.
Reference the Machinery Hand Book or other charts for recommended amounts of material removal per cutting edge and "Depth of Cut"

Formula for IPM: IPM=(RPM) x (Number of cutting Edges) x (Amount of material removed per cutting Edge)

Formula for IPR: IPR=(IPM) divided by (RPM)

Formula for Tap Feed: (IPM)=(RPM) divided by (Thread Pitch)

Once you've determined the Speed and Feed, you may have to adjust it to compensate for variables such as cutter geometry, variations in the material hardness/toughness, the rigidity of the machine tool, workpiece set-up and the Horsepower of the machine. Every CNC machine center that I've ever used has Feed and Speed overrides.

Yes, there are speed and feed calculators that you can download from the internet, and master cam calculates speeds and feeds when it post a program. I feel that you should at least know what you are doing when you use feed and speed overrides on a CNC machine tool. Also, you may not always have your PC available to use the downloadable calculators. Computers and machines don't compensate for the variables discussed in the previous paragraph.

Every Machinist should have reference books and charts in their work area with formulas, cutting speeds, chip removal rates and depth of cut.

Removing a Broken Tap

Removing a broken tap can be challenging. In a perfect world, taps would never break, however, this is not a perfect world. The method of removal depends on how the tap broke and the size of the tap, and the size and shape of the work piece that it broke off in.

If a tap breaks off laterally and part of the tap is out of the work piece far enough...grab it with vise grips or pilers and twist it out.


If a tap breaks off laterally and you can't use vise grips or pliers, then use a Tap Extractor to twist it out.



















I would not recommend welding a screw to the tap, the heat will make the tap even more brittle and weld splatter can become an issue.


Easy-Outs DO NOT work for taps, they only work for screws and bolts.


If the tap shatters inside the work piece (which is most often the case), The method used would greatly depend in the size and shape of the work piece.


EDM Electrode is the best method if possible. You can use a Portable EDM or a EDM Electrode machine.


There are times when you don't have the EDM equipment availability. I would not recommend Drilling it out because the drill point will deflect to the softer metal of the work piece.



I would recommend using a centercutting carbide endmill with a smaller diameter than the minor diameter of the tap, securing the workpiece in a milling machine. When using this method, use a very high spindle rpm and a slow peck feed and compressed air to remove debris. If you are using a Bridgeport mill, then don't use the quill to feed it, use the table and slowly peck feed up. When using a CNC mill, then manually peck feed it in using the "Handle" function. If the Workpiece is too large for the nearest available mill or EDM, then use a hand Dremeling Tool and a carbide bit to grind it out. Regardless if you EDM, Mill or Dremel the broken tap out, you will have to use tweezers or a hard sharp pointed object to dig out the small teeth of the tap after the core is removed.


Remember to always use Safety Glasses or Face Shield.